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When a crime is committed, the harm done to victims and communities can rarely be healed by writing a check or locking someone up. Yet the U.S. criminal justice system’s approach relies heavily on fines and incarceration to punish those who have harmed others. These sanctions fall heaviest on those with the least ability to pay, particularly minoritized groups, leading to a domino effect of harm on individuals, families, and communities. Researchers have long criticized these responses as ineffective at best and, at worst, contributing to greater harm and  recidivism. As a result, there have been calls for new approaches to justice.

• Karin D. Martin, Bryan L. Sykes, Sarah Shannon, Frank Edwards, and Alexes Harris. 2004. “Monetary Sanctions: Legal Financial Obligations in US Systems of Justice.” Annual Review of Criminology 1: 471-495.
• Veronica L. Horowitz, Ryan P. Larson, Robert Stewart & Christopher Uggen. 2024. “Fines, Fees, and Families: Monetary Sanctions As Stigmatized Intergenerational Exchange.” The Sociological Quarterly: 1-20.
• Charles Loeffler & Daniel Nagin. 2022. The Impact of Incarceration on Recidivism. Annual Review of Criminology, 5, 133-152.

What is Restorative Justice?

Restorative Justice (RJ) is an approach that operates alongside or in lieu of traditional criminal justice, as in school, workplace, and other settings as well. It encompasses a variety of practices, often derived from Indigenous cultural traditions, such as the “circle process” and “victim-offender conferencing.” Unlike the standard U.S. system, which views crime as a violation of the law against the government, RJ focuses on the harm caused to relationships. It does this by 1) empowering those harmed and the community to decide how to address the harm and 2) encouraging those responsible to face the affected individuals and take direct accountability, when appropriate.

RJ, in its reactive form, a trained facilitator organizes structured meetings between those involved in an incident to address and resolve the harm caused. Proactively, RJ can involve gatherings where people socialize and strengthen relationships – in the absence of a specific incident. Generally, RJ is used reactively and during these meetings three key questions are discussed: 1) What happened? 2) What have the impacts been? and 3) What can be done to make things better?

For instance, imagine a parent allowed their child to wait at the bus stop near their home. A neighbor’s German Shepherd, often left unsupervised, starts frequenting the area and one day bites the child. This incident sparks conflict between the dog’s owner and the concerned parent. A typical response might involve fining the dog owner and requiring them to keep the dog confined, which could escalate tensions in the neighborhood between dog lovers and concerned parents.

In contrast, a Restorative Justice (RJ) process would bring together the dog owner, the child and their parents, and other concerned neighbors to address the situation. Through open discussions, questions and different perspectives would be explored, allowing all parties to express their concerns and needs. This could lead to creative solutions, such as the dog owner agreeing to better supervision or installing a secure fence, while the community works together to ensure the safety of children at the bus stop by taking turns waiting with the children. Ultimately, this approach could not only resolve the issue but also foster a stronger sense of trust and cooperation within the neighborhood.

• Daniel Van Ness, Karen Heetderks, Jonathan Derby, & Lynette Parker. 2022. Restoring justice: An introduction to restorative justice. Routledge.
• Howard Zehr. The Little Book of Restorative Justice. 2015. Simon and Schuster.
• Mark Umbreit. Victim Meets Offender: The Impact of Restorative Justice and Mediation. 2023. Wipf and Stock Publishers.
• Edward Charles Valandra, ed. Colorizing restorative justice: Voicing our realities. Living Justice Press, 2020.

Does Restorative Justice Work?

For over 40 years, research assessing the effectiveness of RJ has consistently shown it to be a relatively better solution for a range of minor-to-serious crimes. First, people who participate in RJ instead of the traditional process (fines and jail) had significantly lower rates of repeating harm. Second, people who were harmed felt RJ was more inclusive to them than the traditional process, and those involved in more serious-incidents experienced lower rates of PTSD symptoms. Third and lastly, RJ was significantly cheaper than the court process and empowering to communities. Overall, RJ is a well-established, evidence-based practice that is growing a viable response to both property and violent crimes.

• James Bonta, Rebecca Jesseman, Tanya Rugge, Robert Cormier. 2005. Restorative Justice and Recidivism. In Handbook of Restorative Justice, pages 108-120. Routledge. 
• Heather Strang, Lawrence W Sherman, Evan Mayo-Wilson, Daniel Woods, and Barak Ariel. 2013. Restorative Justice Conferencing (RJC) Using Face-to-Face Meetings of Offenders and Victims: Effects on Offender Recidivism and Victim Satisfaction. A Systematic Review. Campbell Systematic Reviews, 9(1), 1-59.
• Lawrence W Sherman, Heather Strang, Evan Mayo-Wilson, Daniel Woods, and Barak Ariel. 2015. Are restorative justice conferences effective in reducing repeat offending? Findings from a Campbell systematic review. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 31, 1-24.

Restorative Justice is Growing.

There has been significant growth and adoption of RJ around the world, with the United States, Canada, The United Kingdom, Taiwan, Japan, Tanzania, Rwanda, South Africa, and over 80 other countries having formalized laws surrounding the use of RJ for crime. Notably, New Zealand has been a consistent pioneer in incorporating RJ, particularly in its youth justice system, which has influenced practices globally. In North America, RJ programs have gained traction in many states and provinces, often supported by legislative frameworks that encourage their use.

As RJ continues to gain recognition and support globally, it offers a promising alternative to traditional justice systems, emphasizing healing, accountability, and community cohesion over punishment through fines and incarceration. In doing so, the global RJ movement may ultimately encourage a shift towards more humane and effective ways of addressing harm and achieving true justice. 

• Julena Jumbe Gabagambi. 2018. A comparative analysis of restorative justice practices in Africa. Hauser Global Law School Program.
• Daniel W. Van Ness. “An overview of restorative justice around the world.” (2016).
• Brunilda Pali & Giuseppe Maglione. Discursive representations of restorative justice in international policies.” European Journal of Criminology 20.2 (2023): 507-527.

An empty corporate office meeting room, with the empty, white chairs surrounding a table. Photo by Mikhail Nilov from Pexels under Pexels license.

The image of Asian Americans as “model minorities” seems to be ingrained in American culture. Asian Americans are painted as high-achieving minorities who have overcome racial discrimination to reach the same heights as, or even exceed white Americans. This model minority framing, a so-called “positive stereotype,” disguises the discrimination that Asian Americans face within professional employment. How is it that Asian Americans can occupy some of the most desirable jobs but never move up the ranks? The overrepresentation of Asian Americans in fields like tech, law, and business but underrepresentation in leadership positions represents the paradoxical discrimination of the “bamboo ceiling” that Asian Americans continually bump against.

The Limits of Asian American Success

The image of the model minority is double-sided: on the one hand, it upholds Asian Americans as hard-working and model employees; on the other hand, it portrays Asian Americans as meek and subservient. This stereotype, in other words, creates the bamboo ceiling, which is where Asian Americans are perceived as ideal entry-level workers and unable to be creative or assertive in the manner needed for leadership, preventing them from reaching high-ranking positions. 

• Chin, Margaret. 2020. Stuck: Why Asian Americans Don’t Reach the Top of the Corporate Ladder. New York, NY: New York University Press.
• Shao, Di. 2023. “Is There a Bamboo Ceiling? The Asian-White Gap in Managerial Attainment for College-Educated Workers.” Sociology of Race and Ethnicity 9(1).
• Gu, Chien-Juh. 2015. “Racial Glass Ceilings, Gendered Responses: Taiwanese American Professionals’ Experiences of Otherness.” Sociological Focus 48(2).

Navigating the Professional Workplace

In addition to confronting cultural stereotypes that limit their advancement, in spaces that are dominated by white leadership, minoritized people are regularly pressured to “assimilate” or adjust how they display their ethnic and racial identities. Some Asian Americans experience microaggressions or being “othered” in the workplace. These might include “being mistaken for other Asian Americans [or] hearing culturally insensitive comments about ethnic names, food, culture, or language” (Huang 2020).

• Chow, Tiffany Y. 2023. “Privileged but Not in Power: How Asian American Tech Workers Use Racial Strategies to Deflect and Confront Race and Racism.” Qualitative Sociology 46(1).
• Min, Pyong Gap, and Rose Kim. 2000. “Formation of Ethnic and Racial Identities: Narratives by Young Asian-American Professionals.” Ethnic and Racial Studies 23(4).

The Intersections of Gender and Race

However, Asian American workplace discrimination does not only relate to race. Studies interviewing Asian Americans have demonstrated that what Asian Americans navigate is not just racism but how racism interacts with other identities such as gender. For example, some Asian American women receive comments about “looking young”, which influences how seriously they are taken in comparison to their male colleagues. These intersecting identities are not only sources of discrimination, they can be important components of how the workplace shapes Asian American racial and ethnic identities as well.

• Huang, Tiffany J. 2021. “Negotiating the Workplace: Second-Generation Asian American Professionals’ Early Experiences.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 47(11).
• Tinkler, Justine, Jun Zhao, Yan Li, and Cecilia L. Ridgeway. 2019. “Honorary Whites? Asian American Women and the Dominance Penalty.” Socius 5.
• Vo, Tiffanie, Cyrus Schleifer, and Peyman Hekmatpour. 2023. “Asian Americans and Income Inequality: Disparities Between and Within Racial, Ethnic, and Gender Groups.” Sociological Perspectives 66(6).

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Memorial Day Shout Out to the Silent Ranks from Sociological Images on Memorial Day and the significance of how the mothers of U.S. service members during the war on terrorism, who, along with other family members, form the “silent ranks” providing crucial homefront support despite the largely gendered expectations and limited recognition they receive.

Shifting Memories and Meanings of Pearl Harbor by Jillian LaBranche writes on how iconic events like Pearl Harbor shape American identity and understanding of current events, with collective memories constructed and evolving through social institutions and contemporary interests.

Indirect Effects of Combat on Veterans’ Health by Allison Nobles on research by Jason Schnittker, looking into the new policy on how Veterans Affairs now lets veterans seek non-VA care to reduce long wait times. Research shows veterans’ poor health is more linked to difficulties in civilian life, social relationships, and smoking than direct combat injuries or PTSD, highlighting the need for comprehensive support.

The Marks of War by Letta Page covers the work of Jason Deitch, a UC-Berkeley PhD and veteran, who collaborated with the California State Library and others on the “War Ink” project, interviewing tattooed veterans to share their stories and emotions through their tattoos, aiming to bridge the gap between veterans and their communities and reduce their isolation.

A college campus with people protesting and holding signs on the entrance steps. Photo by Brett Sayles from Pexels under Pexels license.

This week, pro-Palestinian protests are occurring in many U.S. colleges and universities in response to the conflict in the Gaza Strip and surrounding areas. Students supporting Palestinians are building encampments, occupying buildings, and marching on and off campuses to advocate for a ceasefire, peace, and divestment in Israel’s military. At the same time, other students are reporting continued antisemitic incidents on campuses. As these demonstrations continue and grow, history tells us that increased police presence may lead to more conflict on campuses. In light of these real-time developments, we here at TSP wanted to share a few pieces from us and others on the important role that college campuses and students serve in starting conversations and social change in broader society.

First Hand Faculty Experiences on Campus Issues

• Mass Movements; Moral Moments by Donna Gabaccia reflects on her first-hand experience as a faculty member during an incident of police abuse in Minneapolis, recalling a distressing scene where a young Black teenager was unjustly detained by police in a library.

Young Adults and Social Structure of Protests

• When Youth Become Activists by Amber Joy Powell writes up some research on the nationwide youth-led movement advocating for stricter gun control in 2018, demonstrating the significant impact young activists can have using modern tools like social media to enhance their cause.
• in brief: close to the issue by Parker Muzzerall on how proximity to protests, such as the Occupy Central Movement in Hong Kong, increases support for the movement and shifts political ideologies leftward among nearby residents, despite the disruptions caused.

Challenges of Involving Police

• Political Protest and the Call for Law and Order by Amber Joy Powell covers the NRA’s response to progressive political protestors and how political figureheads have historically responded to social instability.
• Mizzou and Millennial tolerance for shutting down free speech by Lisa Wade coverage of the 2015 surge of student activism on issues of racism and changes on funding and resignations, while sparking debates about free speech and highlighting trends showing that Millennials are increasingly supportive of government censorship of speech offensive to minorities.

Public Opinion and Tolerance (or lack of) on Campus Protests and Academic Freedom in Sociology

• Curriculum, Culture Wars, and Sociology in the Classroom by Forrest Lovette and John Purnell respond to the recent attacks on the discipline in Florida, covering the value of sociology, free speech/academic freedom, and anti-intellectualism in American culture.

Two women sitting side-by-side with laptops in front of them, glancing at each other after reading something shocking. Photo by Resume Genius from Upsplash.

Intro and History

Several subcultures exist online dedicated to hating women, collectively known as the “manosphere.” These communities hold different perspectives on how they should operate in society based on their shared belief in the Red Pill, the belief that we live in a “Gynocracy” (a society dominated by women that discriminates against men).

Some of these subcultures focus on trying to “prove” their negative views of women by presenting themselves as scientifically knowledgeable. Others focus on more explicitly bigoted and violent language. “Incels” believe that they are involuntarily celibate thanks to societal injustice. Another manosphere group, “Men Going Their Own Way” (MGTOW), takes a different approach to women and tries to avoid women and female institutions altogether.

• Ann-Kathrin Rothermel. 2023. “The Role of Evidence-Based Misogyny in Antifeminist Online Communities of the ‘Manosphere.’” Big Data & Society 10(1)

• Stephane Baele, Lewys Brace, and Debbie Ging. 2023. “A Diachronic Cross-Platforms Analysis of Violent Extremist Language in the Incel Online Ecosystem.” Terrorism and Political Violence 1–24.

• Scott Wright, Verity Trott, and Callum Jones. 2020. “‘The Pussy Ain’t Worth It, Bro’: Assessing the Discourse and Structure of MGTOW.” Information, Communication & Society 23(6):908–25.

Politics and Culture

While many online misogynists solely focus on hating women, others have become more broadly political. For example, many members of the manosphere backed Donald Trump for the US presidency. However, at times, members of the manosphere have come into conflict with other right-wing extremists. Some white nationalists, for instance, believe they should “protect” white women, while manosphere members are often more explicitly hateful towards white women.

• Pierce Alexander Dignam and Deana A. Rohlinger. 2019. “Misogynistic Men Online: How the Red Pill Helped Elect Trump.” Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 44(3):589–612.
• Jillian Sunderland. 2023. “Fighting for Masculine Hegemony: Contestation between Alt-Right and White Nationalist Masculinities on Stormfront.” Men and Masculinities 26(1):3–23.

A large college lecture hall, with some seats brightly lit and others covered in an ominous shadow. Photo by Pixabay from Pexels under Pexels license.

On November 9th, 2023 the Florida Board of Governors voted to remove “Principles of Sociology” from the list of required courses at all public colleges. Manny Diaz Jr, the state’s education commissioner, wrote on social media that “sociology has been hijacked by left-wing activists.” In response, the president of the American Sociological Association, Joya Misra, released a statement defending the importance of sociology in higher education. The decision in Florida has jolted the sociology community into an identity crisis and led to a broad, far-ranging debate about and defense of the value of the discipline. 

The Value of Sociology

Although the first department of sociology was established in the late 19th century, the discipline remains difficult to define. For those outside of the field, Sociology is often confused with social work or even socialism. But even among sociologists, there have been lasting debates about what constitutes and defines the discipline, its object(s) of study, and its unique way of viewing the world. Even its status as a science is a perennial question: should sociological observations be considered objective facts as in the natural sciences, or will social realities always be subjective and biased? The recent policy changes in Florida’s higher education curriculum have caused sociology insiders and outsiders alike to ask if it’s a science and what sort of utility it has in the real world. 

• Buggs, Shantel Gabrieal. 2024. “Fighting the Fascists: What Can Sociology Teach Our Students?” Humanity and Society 48(1):77-88. 
• Boudon, Raymond. 1988. “Will Sociology Ever Be a ‘Normal Science?’” Theory and Society 17(5):747–71.
• Burawoy, Michael. 2016. “Sociology as a Vocation.” Contemporary Sociology 45(4):379-393. 

Anti-intellectualism

Though the attacks on sociology by politicians and policymakers have made headlines recently, lambasting higher education is nothing new in American politics. Since the late 1960s, sociologists and other scholars have been studying anti-intellectualism – holding distrustful and disparaging attitudes towards experts and respected scientists – in the United States. Acclaimed historian Dr. Richard Hoffstadter famously published Anti-Intellectualism in American Life in 1963, which in part argued that the construction of intellectuals as ‘elite’ members of society diminishes their reputation as trustworthy amongst the general public. This framing makes them a target for politicians who claim to ‘represent the people,’ and can transform generally accepted scientific theories into potent political wedge issues. 

• Rigney, D. (1991), Three Kinds of Anti-Intellectualism: Rethinking Hofstadter†. Sociological Inquiry, 61: 434-451.
• Hofstadter, R. (1963). Anti-intellectualism in American life
• Motta, M. (2018). The Dynamics and Political Implications of Anti-Intellectualism in the United States. American Politics Research, 46(3), 465-498.

The internet’s inception has significantly impacted the form and salience of anti-intellectualism in American society. The racial, social, and economic inequalities that continue to afflict the country have become exceedingly visible through online media. The internet has also provided a platform for creating false and misleading content and its widespread distribution and dissemination. The convoluted flurry of articles, figures, and ‘facts’ uploaded to social media and news websites has given anti-intellectualism a contemporary twist that researchers from all scholarly fields must confront if they haven’t already.

• Giglietto, F., Iannelli, L., Valeriani, A., & Rossi, L. (2019). ‘Fake news’ is the invention of a liar: How false information circulates within the hybrid news system. Current Sociology, 67(4), 625-642.
• Abbott, A. (2016). The Demography of Scholarly Reading. The American Sociologist, 47(2/3), 302–318.

Sociology’s Contributions

Sociology often forces us to confront uncomfortable or inconvenient truths about social life. This makes the social sciences a target for politicians seeking an academic scapegoat or those embroiled in the anti-intellectualism movement. Despite these efforts, sociology remains a discipline of deep theoretical foundations and valuable scholarship in the search for knowledge, shared realities, and truth. One of the major subdisciplines in the field is the Sociology of Knowledge which is concerned with knowledge production in society and how we collectively construct our societies.

• Berger, P. L., & Luckmann, T. (1967). The social construction of reality: A treatise in the sociology of knowledge. Open Road Integrated Media, Inc.
• Mannheim, K. (1991). Ideology and Utopia (1st ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315002828
• Merton, R. K. (2017). The sociology of knowledge. In Society and Knowledge (pp. 35-66). Routledge.

While attacks on the discipline have been motivated mainly by political conservatives in the United States, it’s important to note that no one political ideology is promoted by sociology. For example, Ronald Reagan and Michelle Obama were sociology majors. Rather than forcing a specific set of moral or idealistic values on those who study it, sociology empowers people across a range of political persuasions to study, critique, and act upon our complex surroundings. 

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Black History Month was expanded in 1976 upon the historical precedence of “Negro History Week” in 1926 by Carter G. Woodson, the second Black American to receive a Ph.D. from Havard (with the first Black American being W.E.B. Du Bois). In honor of Black History Month, here are a few pieces from The Society Pages and our partners over the last year:

Contexts

• Black Sociology: A Primer by Melissa C. Brown covers the history, key figures, and evolution of Black Sociology. 
• The Struggle for Martin Luther King, Jr.’s Memory by Hajar Yazdiha on her new book on political misappropriations of Dr. King’s memory and legacy.
• Intensive Motherwork: Racism and Black Women’s Mothering by Mia Brantley on her recent study on the stories of Black mothers and their experiences of racism while mothering.

Council on Contemporary Families

• The Burdens of Mothering for Black Women by Mia Brantley on her research with mothers on their children’s experiences of anti-Black racism. 
• *No more in the Shadows: Race, Family Structure, and Black Families by Deadric T. Williams and Virginia Rutter writes on family structure and race. 

The Society Pages

• Rethinking the Rooney Rule: The NFL’s Commitment to Failing Black Coaches by Nadia Jackson-Fitch on the NFL’s diversity rule for interviewing and hiring coaches. 
• Black Interim Head Coaches in the NFL by Marissa Kiss, Earl Smith, and Angela J. Hattery on racism and the hiring of Black NFL coaches.  
• Separate, Unequal, and Denied: The Double Discrimination of Black Disabled Students by Eleanor Nickel on the effects of race and ability being discriminated against in primary and secondary schools.
• A TSP classic by Amber Powell and Caity Curry on some early Black Women’s contributions to sociology.
• And lastly another piece by Amber Powell on colorism and division among Black women.

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Here are some recent pieces on love, relationships, dating expectations, and more on Valentine’s Day from us and our partners.

• what the golden bachelor gets right about older adult dating by Lauren Harris on ABC’s The Golden Bachelor and older adult dating.
• Roses are Red, Violets are Blue: Online Dating May Have a Gendered View by Nicole Schmitgen on a recent study by Lauren Harris on dating sites and older adults.
• Love Behind Bars by Isabel Arriagada writes up how people who are incarcerated and their loved ones face challenges within their relationships.
• National Spouses Day is Next Week…. Feeling Any Pressure? A Fact Sheet on Prospects for Marriage in Contemporary America by Daniel Carlson and Stephanie Coontz have some great statistics to refer to at Valentine’s Day Dinner tonight.
• A Vinegar Tradition: Happy Valentine’s Day, I Hate You by Lisa Wade on an old tradition, sending a cruel and biting message to someone you didn’t like.
• Visual Soc: Mining Love by Isabel Arriagada and Jillian LaBranche explains some of the complexities of increased diamond sales during this time of year.
• Celebrating Valentine’s Day in Japan by Gwen Sharp explores the reversed gendered expectations in Japan (I pointed this out to my partner).
• Hoping for a Valentine’s Day date? Stop waiting to be asked! by Shannon Cavanagh covers some research on initiating contact of potential suitors.
• Gender, Bodies, and the Valentine’s Day Script by Isabel Arriagada and Allison Nobles on media-fueled expectations of how a Valentine’s Day should go down.
• Happy Valentine’s Day, Sociology Lovers! by Lisa Wade compiles posts from Valentine’s Day past.

Happy Valentine’s Day to all our new and old readers from TSP!

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In the United States the quasi-holiday Super Bowl is this Sunday. This year the Kansas City Chiefs and the Philadelphia Eagles face off in New Orleans. In the spirit of the Super Bowl, check out some sociology from us and our partners Engaging Sports and Contexts on the Super Bowl, football, and sports:

Two men in matching uniforms in a warehouse standing closely and talking, with a supervisor nearby. Photo by Tiger Lily from Pexels under Pexels license.

The United States has over 8,000 businesses with over 1000 employees. Starbucks has 15,000 coffee shops and 350,000 employees. Amazon employs over 1.5 million. The United States is also home to several large unions. The National Education Association has 3 million union members. The United Auto Workers (UAW) union has over 400,000 members. These business and labor giants frequent headlines and news of negotiations between management and workers seem to tell a story of battling juggernauts, using strikes and union-busting tactics to outdo the other. 

Over the past several decades unions have lost some of their strength. However, in recent years large demonstrations and organizing have signaled the beginning of a possible shift. Sociological research can help workers better understand the context of this shift and the impacts these dynamics can have on employers and employees. 

Union Membership

In 1935, US workers gained the right to form a union in the National Labor Relations Act in the private sector. Union formation and management was then assigned to the National Labor Relations Board and today has the power to manage elections and mediate employee-employer bargaining. However, over the past 40 years union membership in the public sector has remained stagnant at 33% and drastically declined in the private sector to an all-time low of 6% in 2021. However, with discussions around the distribution of wealth, minimum wage, and an apparent shortage of workers seeing an uptick in recent years, this historic decline may turn.

• Palley, T. I., & LaJeunesse, R. M. (2007). Social attitudes, labor law, and union organizing: Toward a new economics of union density. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 62(2), 237-254.

• Taylor Johnston. (2022). The U.S. The Labor Movement Is Popular, Prominent and Also Shrinking. New York Times. 

• Western, B., & Rosenfeld, J. (2011). Unions, norms, and the rise in US wage inequality. American Sociological Review, 76(4), 513-537.

• Stephan-Norris, J. & Kerrissey, J. (2023). Union Booms and Busts: The Ongoing Fight Over the U.S. Labor Movement. 

• Eidlin, B. (2018). Labor and the class idea in the United States and Canada. Cambridge University Press.

Unions Organizing

Research can also tell us what makes for a successful union drive. Organizing efforts that are perceived as effective in giving voice to workers’ concerns, fostering union identity among members, and convincing workers of management’s culpability of problems are more effective in organizing and gaining momentum. Workers also utilize online platforms to their advantage. These online spaces do not only allow for organizing with sometimes distant co-workers but also allow for the sharing of ideas and advocacy tactics. For example, Uber, Instacart, and other gig worker employees who lacked access to company-wide wage data used individually compiled worker-reported data to accurately calculate average wages and negotiate for fairer pay. 

Labor unions exist to not only maintain a perceived fair wage, but protect the social and political value of workers. Union organizers adopt and use numerous strategies to grow support and maintain momentum. Tactics range from rhetorical: sarcastically co-opting company messages, personal testimonials, and posting videos; to overt acts of defiance such as strikes

• Badigannavar, V., & Kelly, J. (2005). Why are some union-organizing campaigns more successful than others?. British Journal of Industrial Relations, 43(3), 515-535.

• Khovanskaya, V., Dombrowski, L., Rzeszotarski, J., & Sengers, P. (2019). The Tools of Management: Adapting Historical Union Tactics to Platform-Mediated Labor. Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction, 3(CSCW), 1-22.

• Clawson, D., & Clawson, M. A. (1999). What has happened to the US labor movement? Union decline and renewal. Annual review of sociology, 25(1), 95-119.

Union-Busting Strategies

Employers sometimes work to prevent organizing through various methods, such as lawsuits, diversion of attention, and instilling polarization through the employment of “consultants” who create tension within workplaces to keep workers divided. Additionally, they may employ strategies like misinformation campaigns, surveillance, and promoting a culture of fear to suppress unionization efforts. These tactics not only disrupt solidarity among employees but also create an environment where the idea of collective bargaining is seen as detrimental to the individual interests of workers, further hindering the formation of unions.

• Voos, P. B. (1983). Union organizing: costs and benefits. ILR Review, 36(4), 576-591.

• Freeman, R. B., & Kleiner, M. M. (1990). Employer behavior in the face of union organizing drives. ILR Review, 43(4), 351-365.

• Brimeyer, T. M., Eaker, A. V., & Clair, R. P. (2004). Rhetorical strategies in union organizing: A case of labor versus management. Management Communication Quarterly, 18(1), 45-75.

• Logan, J. (2002). Consultants, lawyers, and the ‘union free’ movement in the USA since the 1970s. Industrial Relations Journal, 33(3), 197-214.

• Clawson, D., & Clawson, M. A. (1999). What has happened to the US labor movement? Union decline and renewal. Annual review of sociology, 25(1), 95-119.

• Levitt, M. J., & Conrow, T. (1993). Confessions of a Union Buster. 

Unions and Society

Researchers have shown that high union membership and union presence in communities have higher wages, fringe benefits, and lower poverty rates. Additionally, union presence has a “spillover effect” – where high union presence positively impacts non-union community members. In other words, businesses (and local policymakers) located in communities with union activity are mindful of their relationship with their workers and the possibility of non-union members unionizing at a small scale or partnering with larger, existing unions. 

Unions serve as an institution of checks and balances to the power and control held by large institutions. Historically, unions have led to improved working conditions and increased retention for institutions. Today, however, a worker’s role in society has changed dramatically and the frequency and intensity of strikes, union-busting strategies, and the relationship between employer and employee is subject to change. 

• VanHeuvelen, Tom; Brady, David (2022): Labor Unions and American Poverty, ILR Review, ISSN 2162-271X, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA, Vol. 75, Iss. 4, pp. 891-917,

• VanHeuvelen, T. (2023). The Right to Work and American Inequality. American Sociological Review, 00031224231197630.

• Stepan-Norris, J., & Kerrissey, J. (2023). Union Booms and Busts: The Ongoing Fight Over the US Labor Movement. Oxford University Press.

• Rosenfeld, J. (2014). What unions no longer do. Harvard University Press.

• Newman, L., & Skocpol, T. (2023). Rust Belt Union Blues: Why Working-Class Voters Are Turning Away from the Democratic Party. Columbia University Press.

• Feigenbaum, J., Hertel-Fernandez, A., & Williamson, V. (2018). From the bargaining table to the ballot box: Political effects of right to work laws. National Bureau of Economic Research.