Reprinted from the Council on Contemporary Families Brief Reports published on April 20, 2023.

It is widely known that mothers’ employment has suffered most during the COVID-19 pandemic. To date, however, most discussions about the causes of the pandemic-induced “she-session” have focused on the impact of school closures and lack of child care. Yet, none of those factors explains the slow initial recovery of women’s employment after businesses and school reopened following lockdowns in Spring 2020 and, most recently, a striking decline in women’s labor force participation in Fall 2022 after it had finally rebounded to near pre-pandemic levels. This recent decline occurred in spite of low unemployment, high demand for labor, increased bargaining power for workers, and new concerns to increase family income because of inflation.

Our new study recently published in Socius reveals a largely overlooked factor driving mothers’ employment after initial COVID lockdowns – their concerns for public health.

Using data from the Study on Parents’ Divisions of Labor During COVID-19 (SPDLC) on 263 partnered US mothers who were employed prior to the pandemic, we examined how mothers’ concerns about COVID (whether they worried that someone they know will contract COVID) shaped their labor force participation in the Fall of 2020. Indeed, polls in 2020 showed that Americans were markedly concerned about contracting and spreading COVID in Fall 2020. Three-quarters of mothers polled in one survey worried that their child or someone in their family would fall ill if their child returned to in-person school. Results from our study echoed these findings. More than three-quarters of mothers in the SPDLC agreed or strongly agreed that they worried that someone they know would contract COVID. Importantly, mothers who were more worried about COVID were less likely to be employed, and among those that were still employed, worked fewer hours per week.

Our aim was to examine not only whether – but also why – mothers’ COVID concerns affected their employment and paid work hours. We examined three possible pathways through which mothers’ COVID concerns could have impacted their labor force participation: 1) the frequency of children’s attendance of in-person school/childcare, 2) mothers’ remote work, and 3) mothers’ stress.

One of the primary reasons worried mothers worked less was because their concerns about COVID were associated with children spending more time at home and less time at school or daycare. Simply put: the more time children spent at home, the less likely mothers were to be employed. Mothers’ COVID concerns help us understand not only their delay in returning to the labor force, but also why despite substantial efforts to reopen schools across the U.S. in Fall 2020 so many children continued to learn remotely.

Among mothers who were still employed in Fall 2020, their concerns about COVID were associated with fewer work hours not only because these concerns led to more time with children at home, but also because keeping children home resulted in more stress for mothers. Working remotely was associated with fewer paid work hours for mothers. While the flexibility that remote work seemingly provides is often assumed to be a means of managing work-family conflict for mothers, it may actually exacerbate gender inequalities in families. Within the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, working remotely in response to keeping children home to reduce COVID exposure appears to have constrained mothers’ abilities to work.

Though our study focused on Fall 2020, its findings have important implications for our broader understanding of mothers’ employment, particularly in regards to recent declines in the face of the “tripledemic” of flu, RSV, and COVID cases in Fall 2022/Winter 2023. Our study suggests that the sudden downturn in women’s employment in Fall 2022 despite what had been a steady increase in labor force participation since 2021, is due at least in part to processes similar to those observed in Fall 2020.

Every fall, Americans are warned about the upcoming cold and flu season. Now with COVID becoming seemingly endemic, and seasonal threats of surges in other diseases like RSV and strep throat, these warnings have become particularly dire. Alongside risks to families’ and children’s health, surges in serious transmittable disease, which are becoming more frequent post-COVID, pose a threat to gender equality. Because of a lack of widespread paid sick leave, rising rates of infectious diseases can make it difficult for parents – and especially mothers – to continue working. Whether it’s strategizing ways to keep kids from getting sick or caring for them when they fall ill, mothers are generally the family health manager and the parent to cut back on work hours to care for kids at home when illness strikes.

As long as COVID and other infectious disease transmission mitigation is largely dependent upon vaccines and antibiotics rather than other public health measures (masking, paid sick leave, etc.), mothers will remain less likely to make a full return to the labor force due to legitimate concerns about their children’s and family’s members health and safety or will see wild seasonal fluctuations in employment that may negatively affect their careers and job prospects. Indeed, approximately 3 in 5 Americans remain concerned about coronavirus and the ‘tripledemic’ further increased fears of illness among parents. Though mothers’ labor force participation appears to have once again recovered from its dip at the end of 2022, if we fail to address mothers’ concerns about COVID and other infectious diseases as they arise, not only is it likely that mothers’ employment will continue to oscillate wildly during periods of high transmission but current and future pandemics are likely to also continue to dampen mothers’ employment and have substantial consequences for gender equality.

A briefing paper prepared for the Council on Contemporary Families by Daniel L. Carlson, Associate Professor, Department of Family and Consumer Studies, University of Utah, Priya Fielding-Singh, Assistant Professor, Department of Family and Consumer Studies, University of Utah, Richard Petts, Professor, Department of Sociology, Ball State University, and Kristi Williams, Professor, Department of Sociology, The Ohio State University.

Jessi Streib is an Associate Professor of Sociology at Duke University. She is the author of three books: The Power of the Past: Understanding Cross-Class Marriages, Privilege Lost: Who Leaves the Upper Middle Class and How They Fall: Who Leaves the Upper Middle Class and How They Fall, and The Accidental Equalizer: How Luck Determines Pay After College. Her work can be viewed on her website: www.jessistreib.com.  Follow her on Twitter @JessiStreib

Below I interview Dr. StreiB:

AM: What is “luckocracy” and how does it work?

Book cover of The Accidental Equalizer by Jessi Streib

A luckocracy is an opportunity structure that awards outcomes based upon luck. By basing outcomes on luck, it does not base them upon class. And so people from unequal class backgrounds receive equal chances to get ahead.

AM: How does hidden job information and class neutrality work to level the playing field?

The luckocracy is formed by two joint pillars: hidden information about where and how to get ahead, and class-neutral selection criteria. Hidden information forces people from each class background to guess where and how to get ahead, and class-neutral selection criteria mean that their guesses have the same chance of paying off. In this way, luck shapes outcomes because guessing well is what gets people ahead, not class or the resources associated with it.

The luckocracy operates in the mid-tier business labor market: the labor market for business majors from non-elite universities hired to do jobs such as tracking inventory, monitoring marketing campaigns, overseeing payroll, recruiting workers, and managing projects. In this labor market, information about where to get ahead is hidden: most candidates don’t know what jobs pay until they get an offer since this information isn’t in job ads, revealed in interviews, or knowable to students’ connections. Information about how to get ahead is also hidden from students of all classes and their connections. Students know the general competencies that hiring agents seek but don’t know how the person evaluating them defines or evaluates those competencies. Are strong communication skills shown through speaking concisely or giving thorough answers? If employers are looking for leadership and teamwork, should students talk about their accomplishments by saying “I” or “we”? Hiring agents often feel strongly about these issues, but students don’t know their criteria, and so have to guess how to present themselves to each evaluator.

At the same time, hiring agents in this labor market tend to use class-neutral criteria. They often have a low bar of employability, one that students from all classes can meet. So they look for interns who have done anything in the past—worked, joined a club, or volunteered. They look for recent hires who can answer their questions while not demeaning their teammates, swearing, or wearing ripped clothes. They also don’t care how high over their bar students go. If they want students with internship experience, three internships may not be better than one. If they want students with at least a 3.0 GPA, a 4.0 is no better than a 3.0. They also don’t care where students learn their skills, whether from working at McDonald’s, singing in a church choir, or leading an exclusive club. They ignore signs of prestige regarding where students interned, focusing on what students did and learned instead. They define their criteria in class-neutral ways too. “Polish” can mean not chewing gum, yawning, and avoiding too many “ums.” “Fit” can mean being outgoing or reserved, depending on the position, or showing integrity. And when employers do use class-biased criteria, they tend to use standards that favor each group. So the hiring agent who looks for students in Greek life might also look for students who pay for college themselves, with the first criteria favoring the advantaged and the second the disadvantaged. Then, of course, applying for jobs is free, and employers cover most expenses related to interviewing. Finally, many employers refuse to negotiate over pay with recent college graduates, neutralizing any difference that may arise from class-advantaged students’ greater propensity to negotiate.

In this situation, class-advantaged students’ higher GPAs and greater internship experience don’t give them a leg up. Students from all classes earn high enough GPAs and often intern once, and differences beyond that are ignored. Class-advantaged students’ status symbols don’t help them; they’re ignored too. Their connections to professionals don’t get them higher pay either. Because information about where and how to get ahead is hidden from their connections too, the people they talk to advise them to prepare for interview questions that are never asked, recommend answers that aren’t what evaluators prefer, and get them jobs that are just as often low-paying as high-paying. Indeed, in a luckocracy, more advantaged students’ resources don’t help them, and students from all classes end up in the same place: needing to guess where and how to get ahead, with the highest pay going to those who happen to guess the best.

AM: What are the implications of your findings for the future of higher education and the middle class?

My findings provide another argument against college being the great equalizer. Not only do they not equalize admission into college, but they don’t equalize the resources needed to get a job. Instead, it’s the luckocracy that exists within the labor market that is the great equalizer.

Many employers only admit students into the luckocracy with a college degree. This should change; many entry-level jobs don’t require skills that students learned in college. But as long as employers hire college graduates for these jobs, colleges can get closer to becoming an equalizer by graduating more students from disadvantaged backgrounds. This will let them enter the true great equalizer, the luckocracy.

Alicia M. Walker, Ph.D. is an associate professor at Missouri State University. Her research focuses on intimate relationships, gender, sexual behavior and identity, closeted behaviors, and online initiation of sexual relationships.

Hands on top of one another. Untitled by Jarmoluk licensed by Pixaby

Who do you call on when you are facing a problem or need someone to talk to? Conventional wisdom argues that most people first turn to a spouse in their time of need. If one does not have a spouse, or that spouse is unavailable, you are most likely to turn to your parents (and more specifically, your mother). Sons and daughters, and then siblings, round out the order of contact. This follows the Convoy Model, where relationships fall into levels of closeness and that people would go to their closest connections first. One’s spouse, parents, children, and siblings are all common members of the inner circle.

Where would your cousins fit in this scenario? How about your grandparents, grandchildren, aunts, uncles, or stepfamily? Prior research has focused strongly on the nuclear family network, obscuring the relationships with other family members and how these may be enacted in times of need. Extended family often live nearby and play an important role in family members’ lives.

These extended family members may even be a source of resilience in times of crisis by providing practical, financial, or emotional support or alleviating loneliness. Some studies have aimed to count available extended kin or record the interactions with family beyond parents, children, and siblings, but only get as specific as “other relatives,” but little is known about how people rely on these extended family networks for support, particularly in times of great need.

To better understand these relationships, my coauthors (Megan N. Reed, Linda Li, Luca Maria Pesando, Frank F. Furstenberg, and Julien O. Teitler) and I investigated the patterns of extended family communication in the wake of crisis, in this case, the COVID-19 pandemic. We developed a survey module for the Robin Hood Poverty Tracker survey, which began in 2012, and that module was administered in New York City between August 2020 and September 2021, meaning respondents were still experiencing the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic.  With a sample of over 2,300 respondents, we analyzed frequency of communication and change in communication by gender, age, education, race/ethnicity, and household composition.

Findings reveal that respondents were frequently in contact with non-residential family members, with more than half (55.7%) stating they communicated several times a week and only 6% communicating less than once a month or not at all. Further, respondents reported increased communication compared to before the COVID-19 pandemic. As the Convoy Model would suggest, the increase in communication was focused on the family members generally thought to be in the inner circle – siblings (31.0%), parents (22.3%), and children (15.6%). However, after those groups, it was not grandparents (4.3%) or grandchildren (4.9%) that were most common for increased communication, but cousins (14.2%), aunts and/or uncles (13.9%), and other relatives (7.1%). It may be that respondents were already in frequent communication with grandparents or grandchildren, or that they did not have these family members to communicate with, but even so, the sizable increase in communication with extended family illustrates how these family members are called upon in times of crisis or uncertainty. We do not just rely on our parents, siblings, and children, but we reach out to extended family networks for support.

Increased communication with family, both nuclear and extended, is expectedly not uniform across demographic groups. We found class (as measured by income and education) correlated with frequency of communication and whether that communication increased. One may expect respondents living in poverty to increase contact with family members in times of need, but respondents living below the poverty line reported less frequent communication with non-residential family. One may expect that it was primarily those living in poverty who would have increased their contact with family members during the pandemic, but we found no difference by poverty status in increased frequency of communication with non-coresidential family. Those with a college degree had higher odds of increasing communication with non-residential family during the pandemic, particularly with siblings, parents/grandparents, and collateral (aunts, uncles, cousins, and other) kin. This supports other findings that this population reported greater concerns over safety during the pandemic. (See the article for analysis and discussion of racial/ethnic differences!)

Past research has mainly focused on the nuclear family, which has long seen to be a source of support, but this study uncovers how family, and even extended family, can serve as a support, particularly in times of need.Future research should recognize how we do not rely only on close family, but that extended family, including cousins, aunts, uncles, and others, play a substantive role in our lives. This may be more so the case in times of great crisis, like the COVID-19 pandemic, and should be studied to understand when and how these networks are enacted, and if frequent communication and support are maintained, decline, or increase after the crisis is over. Further study should investigate forms of support other than communication, including practical and financial, provided by extended family, to better understand the complexity of family networks and functions. Lastly, additional investigation is required to understand the role of education and income on the frequency and increase of extended family contact. The research described here is an important step toward recognizing the role of extended family in a time of crisis, and one of the major contributions is illustrating the need for more research on the subject.

Lauren Harris is an Assistant Professor of Human Development and Family Studies at the University of New Hampshire. Her research focuses on the structures and meanings of family, and the processes associated with developing romantic relationships, currently among older adults. You can learn more about her work here and here, and her take on The Golden Bachelor on twitter @lauren_e_harris.

Reprinted from UCI School of Sciences October 3, 2023 by Heather Ashbach

Investigating Families book cover

In her new book, Investigating Families: Motherhood in the Shadow of Child Protective Services(Princeton University Press), UCI sociology assistant professor Kelley Fong offers a rare behind-the-scenes look at the impact CPS policies, practices and procedures have on the vulnerable families caught in their crosshairs. Drawing upon interviews with low-income mothers and experience embedded with CPS, Fong sheds light on what happens when we turn to an agency focused on parental mistakes as our primary solution for families facing adversity. Below, she shares her findings as well as alternative strategies for ensuring child and family well-being.

What motivates your research on Child Protective Services (CPS) and its impact on marginalized mothers and families?

Many people don’t realize how pervasive CPS is in the US. Taking children is one of the most powerful and terrifying things the government can do, so we might think we would only wield this threat in the most extreme circumstances. But it turns out that today, one in three kids experience a CPS investigation during childhood, and these rates are even higher in low-income families, Black families, and Native American families.

I’d been interested in children and families for a while. As an undergrad, I took several classes that touched on CPS in various ways, and then I worked on foster care reform after graduating. When I started grad school, there was a lot of sociological research coming out about the impacts of proactive policing and mass incarceration on social life, especially for young Black men. I thought there might be something analogous happening with CPS and the women in these same communities. I wanted to hear from them. I started by interviewing low-income mothers. Then, I wanted to look at the other side of these encounters. Researchers have rarely been able to embed with CPS, but I had some wonderful research partners in Connecticut who enabled me to shadow CPS workers as they conducted investigations.

Could you share some of your key findings and what they mean for those most impacted?

Fundamentally, CPS is oriented around child abuse and neglect. This means that they’re focused on how parents themselves are harming their kids or exposing them to harm and, as I mentioned, they have the power to remove kids from home. But today, so much of what comes to CPS is essentially family adversity in some form, like domestic violence, substance misuse, mental health needs, and homelessness. And while affluent White parents may have the resources to keep these conditions from affecting their kids or from coming to the attention of authorities, low-income parents and parents of color often don’t have that luxury.

So my research considers what it means that an agency focused on parents’ wrongdoings has become our go-to for dealing with families facing adversity. It amplifies mothers’ sense of precarity, even when children remain home, as is typical. The investigation itself is terrifying and digs into all aspects of families’ personal lives. Those facing the greatest challenges are seen as “risky” and shuttled deeper into the system. And it makes mothers think twice about reaching out for help or confiding in those who reported them to CPS. Essentially, our response to family adversity is structured around destabilizing mothers, around surveilling and evaluating and correcting them, no matter how respectful and well-meaning CPS and adjacent professionals may be.

How does reliance on CPS as a “first responder” to family misfortune and hardship affect the way society addresses family poverty and adversity?

It means that rather than actually addressing the root causes of poverty and adversity – low wages, insufficient labor protections, a weak and paternalistic welfare state, disinvestment in communities beyond the affluent, and so on – we are instead focused on what individual mothers are doing wrong. This is misguided and not actually getting at the problem. It continues a legacy of racism, threatening Black and Native American families in particular. And it’s unjust, as those in power make parenting extraordinarily difficult, then blame and penalize families for those challenges.

Based on your insights and observations, what changes or reforms do you believe are necessary in the current approach to addressing family adversity and child protection? What are some alternative strategies or models that could be used as a more effective response to ensure child and family well-being?

There’s a lot we can do right now to “narrow the front door” to CPS specifically, so that fewer families come into contact with the agency. I am inspired by grassroots efforts to educate mandated reporters on how to respond to families they are concerned about by offering support rather than rushing to report. It’s also great to see organizations that frequently report, such as hospitals, revising their reporting practices, and even jurisdictions like LA County trying to rethink the reliance on CPS reporting. CPS agencies themselves could shift screening practices to ensure that only situations posing serious child safety issues require CPS intervention. Clarifying child maltreatment statutes – for instance, to state that homelessness does not constitute child neglect – could help with this.

But of course, we don’t want to leave families homeless. So we also need to develop and invest in supports for families facing adversity. It’s a different approach to child protection, one that tries to ensure families have what they need to raise their kids. Fortunately, we know what works. There’s a growing research base on how material supports like cash assistance and childcare subsidies prevent abuse and neglect. The Expanded Child Tax Credit, which recently expired, was an enormous boon to child welfare. Supporting families and investing in community amenities like libraries and parks is child protection work. It may feel easier to turn the task of child protection over to CPS. But as I heard one CPS official say, it’s not CPS but communities that keep kids safe.

Kelley Fong is assistant professor of sociology at UC Irvine. She studies social inequality and family life, with a focus on families’ interactions with state systems. Twitter: @kelley_fong

Reprinted from Psychology Today October 8, 2023

Copyright: Deborah Carr

The “Golden Bachelor” can teach us five things about losing (and finding) love.

Shown: a rose. Untitled by Peggychoucair licensed by Pixaby

More than 4 million viewers tuned in to the premiere of The Golden Bachelor, captivated by 72-year-old widower, restaurateur, and grandfather Gerry Turner’s search for love the second time around.

I was among those 4 million viewers. As a sociologist who has spent more than two decades studying older adults’ romantic lives and losses, I feared the worst. Would the long-running ABC franchise match up septuagenarian bachelor Gerry with 40-year old women, considered “old” by Bachelor standards? Would the series rely on cheap ageist jokes about Viagra and senility? Would it make a mockery of older adults in their quest for love, playing up tired old tropes of sexual desperation?

My fears were quickly put to rest after watching the premiere. The 22 women vying for Gerry’s affection are smart, accomplished, witty women ages 60 to 75. They support each other, laugh together, and even help one another glam up for their dates with Gerry. The vibe in the mansion, where the 22 contestants live together during the show’s taping, was playful rather than competitive.

Encouraged by this auspicious start, I watched – with trepidation – the second episode. It was remarkable, and one of the few raw portrayals of widowhood, grief, and loneliness that I can recall seeing on network TV. Gerry lost Toni, his wife of 42 years, to an unexpected bacterial infection. About half of the female contestants also are widowed, and the other half are divorced — all after decades-long marriages. This aligns with statistical snapshots of older women’s family lives today; about 18 percent of U.S. women aged 65 and above are divorced, while an equal share are widowed. (Most are currently married, while less than 5 percent are lifelong singles).

Here are five important truths about widowhood, grief, and loss that we can learn from The Golden Bachelor.

Grief doesn’t follow a predictable scheduleThe pain of loss lessens with time, thankfully. But feelings of sadness and yearning for one’s late spouse can pop up when you least expect it. Some widows and widowers have difficult moments on their late spouse’s birthday or their wedding anniversary. Simple sights, sounds, and smells can trigger bittersweet memories of one’s late spouse. That’s what happened to 60-year old interior designer Nancy on her group date with Gerry.

The women were donning fanciful costumes as part of a mock photo shoot, and Nancy chose a demure white lace wedding gown. While her fellow contestants were laughing and hamming it up for the camera in their biker jackets and psychedelic mini-dresses, Nancy was overcome with deep emotion and started to sob. The dress reminded her of her wedding day – 36 years earlier — to her late husband, a moment she still calls “the best day of my life.” Gerry soothed her by sharing a similar experience: He had recently walked past a bakery, and the smell of cinnamon instantly triggered memories of his late wife, who baked cinnamon rolls every Christmas. They both described their grief flashes the same way: “I didn’t expect it…it came out of nowhere.”

But despite the raw emotions and initial pain of these flashes, both Nancy and Gerry recognized that these moments were reminders of how fortunate they were to have had a great love. Grief, as the saying goes, is the price we pay for love.

Sudden deaths can be especially hard. For most older adults, the death of a spouse comes after a long chronic illness, like cancer or heart disease. That often means a long and grueling spell of caregiving, and the experience of anticipatory grief – or the sadness of knowing that death is near. But for several Golden Bachelor contestants, their spouse’s death came quickly and unexpectedly after a short illness. Gerry’s wife fell ill to a lethal bacterial infection just days after the couple purchased their dream lake house – robbing them of a happy retirement together. That’s part of the reason why he bonded so quickly and deeply with Theresa, a 70-year-old securities professional, who lost her husband Billy suddenly after 42 years of marriage. Although Billy was managing kidney disease, he had an unexpected turn for the worse. Theresa ran home from work to find an ailing Billy, who then died in her arms.

All losses are devastating, but the kinds of supports that widow(er)s need, and their personal timetable for re-entering the dating world may vary dramatically based on how sudden or anticipated the loss was.

Moving on is healthy. Don’t feel guilty for finding a new love. Widows and widowers sometimes feel social pressure to stay single for life, out of respect for their late spouse. But norms have changed over the past century. Widows no longer wear black clothing for life, or withdraw from the social world. Bereaved persons who wish to find a new love should re-enter the dating world, once the initial sting of loss has passed.

For many, that’s what their late spouse would have wanted. Joan, a 70-year-old private school administrator, shared that when her late husband was dying of pancreatic cancer, he urged her to someday date again and find happiness. At that time, she wasn’t ready to accept that her husband would die, and closed her mind off to dating. But with time, she, like Gerry, felt it was appropriate to honor her late spouse’s wish that she find love again.

Yet others prefer not to date – cherishing their new freedom and independence after a decades-long marriage. For some, friendships fill the emotional void left by their loss. Some feel that their late spouse was their “one and only,” and aren’t interested in pursuing a new relationship. Widows and widowers know best what makes them happy, and should pursue their happiness however they see fit.

Children can help (or hurt) new relationships. Gerry made it clear why he was named The Golden Bachelor. His daughters urged him to apply, wanting their grieving dad to find love again. Gerry’s not alone. Children (and even grandchildren) can be one’s greatest supporters and helpers in their pursuit of new love. The younger generation can teach important lessons about romance in the 21st century, sharing tips on how to use dating apps and websites to find a partner and the best way to construct a text message. This encouragement is important and can help erase any feelings of guilt a widow(er) might feel when dipping their toe back into the dating pool.

Of course, not all children are helpful. They are sometimes so overcome with their own grief for their deceased parent that they don’t want their surviving parent to move on. Others worry about bringing a new person into the family, skeptical that the new love might be insincere, or worse yet, scam a parent out of their life savings. Well-meaning skepticism can be healthy, but children – especially those who have had warm and loving relationships with their parent – should trust their parent to make wise romantic decisions.

There’s no single way to cope with loss. Gerry and the widows he’s dating have each coped with loss in different ways. While Gerry found comfort in looking at old photos of his late wife, Joan admitted it was too painful to see images of her deceased husband. Some of the women leapt back into work and socializing because they couldn’t bear to be alone, while others sought solitude and quiet nights at home reading, dreading the company of others.

The contestants’ experiences gibe with research on widowhood showing that there are many ways to cope, some more productive than others. In general, people tend to cope with distress in two ways. Problem-focused coping means finding a solution to the source of one’s suffering. This might involve volunteering or going out with friends, to fight the pain of loneliness. Emotion-focused coping, conversely, involves changing one’s emotional response to the situation. There’s no way to bring back one’s deceased spouse, but it is possible to squash negative feelings by recalling happy times with one’s spouse, or talking through one’s feelings with friends.

Dulling one’s emotions through drugs or alcohol is considered the least healthy way to cope.

Going on a national TV show and searching for love might not be a typical strategy for coping with loss, and it’s not available to everyone, but it does help Gerry and the 22 women in one important way: It gives them hope for the future. Even if they don’t find love on the show, they will all hopefully leave the series feeling that something new, exciting, and fulfilling lies ahead in the future. Optimism and the belief in new possibilities may be best gifts these older widows and widowers receive from their time in the spotlight.

Deborah Carr is a professor and chair of the sociology department at Boston University. She studies stress and health, and the ways our relationships can help (or hurt) us. Follow Deborah on Twitter @DeborahCarr723

Book cover for Daddies of a different kind
Daddies of a Different Kind: Sex and Romance Between Older and Younger Adult Gay Men. (NYU Press)

Reprinted with permission from The Conversation October 3, 2023

The term “daddy” has exploded in popularity in recent years. Actor Pedro Pascal was recently crowned the internet’s daddy. There is an app called Dream Daddy where players can date a daddy. Saturday Night Live even ran a skit about daddies.

While there is no shortage of discussions about daddies, there is little research about what the term means to the men who are classified as daddies themselves.

My new book, Daddies of a Different Kind: Sex and Romance Between Older and Younger Adult Gay Men, investigates this topic. I talked to 39 men in their 40s, 50s and 60s who saw themselves as daddies, and 26 men in their 20s and 30s who liked dating older men. I focused on gay and bisexual men because they are more likely to form partnerships with large age gaps than any other group in the western world.

What is a daddy?

Many of the men I talked to agreed that daddies were experienced, stable, had leadership abilities and nurtured and mentored younger adult men. This mentorship involved a range of topics, from how to come out to family to how to advance in their careers. The connection between older and younger adult men was not just physical, it was emotional too.

As Tomas (44) explained, a “daddy is typically somebody who is an older man who feels comfortable being with a younger person and is there to help and support them and work through things with them.” This tender connection existed in many of the relationships men formed, from casual dating to friends-with-benefits to romantic partnerships.

In contrast to stereotypes, there was little evidence of widespread power differentials that harmed either older or younger adult men. One reason why is that men viewed nurturance of younger adult men as key to daddyness.

Mateo (55) noted: “You want to leave somebody in better shape after you’re not with them. So as a daddy you want the best for that person throughout the relationship and even afterwards.”

Older men’s daddy consciousness developed in midlife. It usually began in response to interest from younger adult men. “I didn’t expect to be a daddy, it just kind of happened,” Jordy (57) explained. “It was gradual. They started [calling me daddy] in my early 40s and probably when I was around 45, 46, I accepted the role.” Daddyness is not just a state of mind. Most men agreed that daddyness is connected to age.

Why are younger men interested in daddies?

In addition to mentorship, younger adult men described a variety of reasons they enjoyed the company of older men. These reasons were, notably, not financial. Michael (30) described, “I’ve never been one to ask for money or to gain benefit from it. I’m financially stable. I’m my own man.”An SNL skit about daddies. The term has increased in popularity in recent years.

Of course, sugar daddies do exist among both heterosexuals and LGBTQ people. Yet the younger adult men I talked to desired older men for their emotional maturity and other non-financial traits.

“I’ve noticed that I’m drawn to older guys mostly because there’s an emotional maturity there,” Joshua (23) offered. DaShawn (27) agreed: “Sometimes I feel like people my own age are immature.” Overall, the younger adult men felt like they connected better with older men.

Unsurprisingly, they also described physical attraction to older men. William (29) noted: “I love gray hair, I like a beard. Signs of age I find are things that are attractive. I like men that wear glasses. Those sorts of physical features I find really are the things that draw me most.” Younger adult men did not desire older men despite their appearance, but in part because of it.

Connecting generations

The connections men formed were both physical and social. Older-younger pairings between adults help to connect different generations of gay and bisexual men. “I feel like I am creating a connection with previous generations of queer people. I feel like that’s part of being a daddy for me,” Graham (51) explained.

Younger adult men can learn from older men what life was like for gay and bisexual men in prior decades. They can also learn about practices that are more common among gay men, including open relationships.

LGBTQ people comprise a small share of the population: 7.2 per cent in the United States and four per cent in Canada. For this reason, one may expect that age gaps are more common among same-sex couples simply because there are fewer available partners.

It is true that age gaps are less common among different-sex (woman-man) couples than same-sex couples. Yet it is also true that age gaps are more common among man-man couples than woman-woman couples, even though both groups face a similarly small dating market. This shows that gay and bisexual men are more open to, or interested in, older-younger pairings between adults than other groups.

For many men, older-younger pairings between adults are an important part of what it means to be a gay or bisexual man today. In many western countries, LGBTQ+ people enjoy more legal rights and social inclusion than they did even 10 years ago. Yet unique aspects of their cultural life have continued, including a greater likelihood to form older-younger pairings between adults. Given that dating apps make it easier to meet adults much older or younger than oneself, these pairings will likely continue for a while.

Tony Silva has received funding from the Sexualities Project at Northwestern University (SPAN) and the Graduate School at Northwestern University.

Tony Silva is an Assistant Professor of Sociology, University of British Columbia. You can follow Tony on Twitter at @Sociology_Silva

Members of the LGBT community are no stranger to the many stereotypes and cultural
explanations from those trying to understand their identities. New research conducted by Emma
L. McGorray and Dr. Christopher D. Petsko in Social Psychological and Personality Science
focuses particularly on the stereotypes that bisexual men and women face in comparison to
their gay and straight counterparts. Despite robust evidence that proves the genuine existence
and validity of bisexual men and women, bisexual people often face identity denial – the
experience of having one’s identity questioned or challenged
– more often than gay men or
lesbian women. It is safe to assume that stereotypes about bisexual individuals often lead to
these identity-denying sentiments. Thus, it is important to understand these stereotypes to
figure out how to disrupt identity-denying experiences that bisexual individuals face.
It is important to examine the relationship between stereotypes and identity denial
separately for bisexual men and bisexual women because bisexual denial or erasure can occur
differently for each group. One study found that bisexual men were often viewed as “actually
gay”
more than bisexual women. Another study found that men’s bisexuality was seen as similar
to homosexuality, whereas women’s bisexuality was seen as similar to heterosexuality
.

Stereotyping bisexual men and women by comparing them to their homosexual and
straight counterparts may contribute to the identity-denying experiences these individuals often
face. This is likely because of the fact that stereotypes are linked to expectations and behavior
and may contribute to the negative experiences these individuals face
. These expectations may
be influenced by the trend of greater behavior in sexual fluidity by women than men, which can
be explained by various social, psychological, and evolutionary factors. By understanding the
stereotypes that arise at the intersection of sexual orientation and gender, specifically for
bisexual people, we can better intervene on the identity-denying beliefs that specifically affect
bisexual men and women.

To find out more about the public’s perception of bisexual men and women, 358
participants were assigned to choose from a list of 99 traits what they believed to be most
stereotypically representative of the group they were assigned. Each participant was randomly
assigned to rank the personality traits for one of the following: heterosexual men, heterosexual
women, bisexual men, bisexual women, homosexual men, homosexual women. In order to find
out if bisexual men are stereotyped towards straight men, and bisexual women are stereotyped
towards straight women, they compared the similarities between the chosen stereotype traits for
each group. From these findings, they found that bisexual men were in fact more stereotyped
with gay personality traits. However, bisexual women were not stereotyped similarly to straight
women.

In a second study, they asked participants to freely write stereotypical traits for one of the
groups (bisexual men, heterosexual women, etc). They once again ranked the most frequently
occuring stereotypes from each group, and analyzed the rate of differences in stereotypes
between the groups. The findings replicated, with bisexual men stereotyped to be more similar
to gay men, and bisexual women NOT to be stereotyped similar to straight women.
In the third experiment, participants were assigned specific stereotypes coupled with a
specific sexual orientation. For example, they were asked ‘According to cultural stereotypes,
how feminine is a bisexual man? In addition, participants were asked to what extent they
believed bisexual men or women were ‘actually gay/straight.’ The findings show that once
again, bisexual men are more so stereotyped with straight personality traits, and bisexual
women are NOT stereotyped with straight personality traits. However, bisexual women are more
likely to be identified as ‘actually straight’ than ‘actually gay,’ and bisexual men are more likely to
be identified as ‘actually gay’ rather than ‘actually straight’

Is there a difference in the way bisexual men and women are culturally stereotyped?
These findings suggest so. Bisexual men across the board are stereotyped to be similar to gay
men. Bisexual women, although not stereotyped to be similar to straight women, are more likely
to be directly identified as “actually straight” compared to bisexual men.

This research provides important insight into the differences in cultural stereotypes
surrounding the sexual orientations of men and women. Although this study points out that a
difference does exist, there needs to be further analysis into the causational relationships
between these perceptions. That is, there needs to be more research into what factors
contribute to, or cause these sex differences in cultural stereotypes of bisexuality. In addition,
this study confines its stereotypes into the gender binary of men and women, and the binary of
sexual orientations of simply gay, straight, and bisexual. There is a rapidly growing community
of people (primarily in younger generations) with gender and sexual identities that don’t conform
to traditional sexuality labels (gay, lesbian, bisexual), which is becoming more important to
consider when thinking about stereotypical viewpoints of the LGBTQ+ community at large
.

Melis Demiralp is a junior undergraduate research assistant for the Buss Lab at the University
of Texas at Austin
. Her research interests include how evolutionary psychology can inform
bisexuality and other non-traditional human mating behavior. You can find her on Twitter
@meliralp.
Ashni Guneratne is currently an undergraduate research assistant for the
Buss Lab at the University of Texas at Austin. Her current research interests include female
intrasexual mate competition, mate-selection, and understanding female bisexuality from an
evolutionary perspective. You can find her on Twitter
@ashniguneratne

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Statistically, the United States has the highest incarceration rate in the world and there are over 100 million Americans with a criminal record. Incarceration not only impacts individuals, but can also cause familial dysfunction, disrupting the entire family system both psychologically and physically.

While locked up, incarcerated individuals may experience feelings of isolation. They also are likely to experience stigma for being incarcerated. Further, it may be quite challenging to keep in contact with family members and maintain relationships during incarceration. This lack of support can lead to elevated levels of stress and poorer physical and mental health outcomes. Loved ones (e.g., sisters with incarcerated brothers, female partners of incarcerated men, mothers of incarcerated sons, and female coparents of incarcerated men) have reported living with the consequences and feeling shame due to their loved one’s incarceration. When a parent is incarcerated, the responsibility of financial and child support is typically left to caregivers, including non-incarcerated parents, grandparents, and siblings. Moreover, for non-incarcerated family members, mental health concerns and substance use conceivably co-occur, which adds more stress to family members. It is challenging—but recommended for incarcerated individuals, especially those who have children—to maintain connections with their families.

Why does self-efficacy matter for incarcerated fathers? According to the American Psychological Association, self-efficacy is defined as an individual’s confidence in executing behaviors or belief of performing accomplishments, which creates self-control of their behavior, motivation, and social surroundings. Incarcerated individuals experience many stressors and challenges after being released, which may surpass their coping skills. Once they feel overly stressed by the countless obstacles before them during the reintegration process, they may attempt to evade responsibilities by relapsing into substance use or recidivating. Therefore, increasing self-efficacy can benefit incarcerated individuals in many ways, such as having more awareness about their external triggers. Further, it can be beneficial by not engaging in avoidant behavior when feeling stressed. Also, increasing self-efficacy for incarcerated fathers can also bring positive impacts to their children on development of coping skills and prosocial behaviors.

Why does enhancing goal-orientation skills matter to incarcerated fathers? Goal orientation focuses on setting and working towards specific objectives, encouraging individuals to achieve positive outcomes. Self-efficacy influences goal orientation and vice versa. For instance, individuals with high self-efficacy believe in their capabilities and have motivation to engage in challenging activities, viewing them as opportunities for learning and development, and they are more likely to seek personal growth, improve skills, and master tasks. Focusing on increasing self-efficacy as well as goal orientation in clinical work, such as Solution-Focused Brief Therapy (SFBT), has found significant effectiveness in an incarcerated population, including reductions of re-offending, increased marital satisfaction, improvement on emotional states, and higher self-esteem in people convicted of domestic violence offenses as well as in children with incarcerated parents.

Our study focused on incarcerated fathers to examine whether improving self-efficacy and goal-orientation skills for coparenting brings benefits in relationship qualities between incarcerated individuals and their partners. We used data from the Multi-site Family Study on Incarceration, Parenting, and Partnering, which recruited men from state prisons in five states and the women whom those men named as their intimate or coparenting partners. Our study included a sample of 1,746 incarcerated men with an average age of 34 years old. Most had graduated from high school or completed their GED, the vast majority of participants self-described as Black. The average length for the current incarceration was almost 4 years with approximately 3 more years left to serve. More than half reported their average time in the relationship was about 7 years.

What did we discover? In short, we found that regardless of the nature of the parenting or romantic relationship, both partners emphasized the importance of enhancing relational skills for the sake of the child. The primary finding was that both self-efficacy and goal orientation skills of incarcerated fathers are positively correlated with relationship qualities, which means that improving either self-efficacy or goal orientation skills can benefit from increasing relationship satisfaction and connection. Coparenting relationships and support from the outside partner can also increase parenting self-efficacy. In turn, this means that coparenting partners would be more assertive in believing in their capacity to parent effectively (self-efficacy) if they receive support from each other. Moreover, our results showed that education level, life skills education, and incarceration length are all positively and significantly associated with relationship qualities.

Therapeutic services, such as couple and family therapy, are needed for incarcerated individuals however, they have a hard time accessing these services. SFBT has been proved by many studies as an effective therapy method for incarcerated individuals to build self-efficacy as well as goal-oriented skills, and the therapeutic process is emphasized by many researchers, including listening, selecting, and building. Based on our findings, we recommend using interventions from SFBT. Through co-constructive dialogue, the therapist listens for hints of “what will be better” to help clients concretely define what they want and lead toward the client’s preferred future. Systemically, relational questions, for example “What would your partner see you doing that would tell them you are getting closer to your goal?”, are asked can benefit incarcerated individuals from imagining what others would see them doing differently when they focus on their goals and actively work to improve their self-efficacy for themselves and their families. Finally, we hope that more resources will be provided to this population and more attention on their needs for both themselves as individuals and their families as a whole.

Eman Tadros, PhD, LMFT is an Assistant Professor at Syracuse University in the Department of Marriage and Family Therapy. She is a licensed marriage and family therapist, MBTI certified, an AAMFT Approved Supervisor, and the Illinois Family TEAM leader. She currently serves as an Assistant Editor for Child: Care, Health and Development. Follow her on X @EmanTadros

Chantal Fahmy is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Criminology and Criminal Justice at The University of Texas at San Antonio. She currently serves as an Associate Editor for Criminal Justice and Behavior. Follow her on X @ChantalFahmy

Sara (Smock) Jordan, PhD, LMFT is the program director, and professor, of UNLV’s Couple and Family Therapy Program.

Antonia Guajardo is a first-generation Latinx counseling student working to empower individuals.

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Scholars have repeatedly shown safe dwellings are essential for children and the entire family to thrive. Thus, for decades, a central objective of the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) has been the financing of decent and safe rental housing. Yet, our recently released research demonstrates not all families have equal access to these federal benefits.

White families receive higher quality units and pay less per month than their counterparts of color. Racial inequality in public housing is not new, but its persistence is troubling.

A Long History of Racially Separate and Unequal Public Housing

At the start of subsidized housing programs in the 1930s, the federal government ensured units were only available to upstanding, stably employed White families. These units were highly sought after as they were well constructed and affordable.

However, they also became a symbol of the federal government’s ongoing discrimination against residents of color. Citizens of color were paying taxes that contributed to the construction of these new public housing developments but were unable to live within them. Additionally, many communities of color were displaced to make room for the new public housing developments.

These stark injustices became a rallying cry, building momentum for activists calling for racial equity in schools and communities. Fearing desegregation, Congress began privatizing publicly owned housing developments, even before any Civil Rights legislation had passed.

Eventually, Congress passed the 1968 Fair Housing Act, which prohibited racial, national origin, or religious discrimination. However, just four months later, they enacted the Housing and Urban Development Act of 1968, which defunded public rental units and created new mechanisms of racial inequity.

While We Weren’t Watching

As the remaining public housing developments were desegregated, elected officials used racist dog whistles to deliberately damage the public’s perception of publicly housing. Public housing was no longer discussed as a desirable, decent, and necessary public good. Instead, politicians, journalists, and academics painted public housing as crime ridden, filthy, and a last resort for desperate families.

Even though rigorous scholarship debunked these racist narratives, the public—including academics—embraced the notion that public housing was predominately Black and broken. Thus, citizens and scholars stopped investigating whether public housing was desegregating or providing equitable services for all families, no matter their racial classification.

Granted, many scholars have investigated several other critical questions about public housing, especially the relatively recent and now most common housing subsidy, housing vouchers. Yet, none of these studies specifically investigated the racial equality and segregation of the public housing programs.

Still Racially Separate and Unequal

We combined data from two major U.S. Census Bureau surveys: the restricted American Housing Survey (AHS) and the American Community Survey (ACS). Our research shows that although residents of color are disproportionally poor, White residents are still the largest racial category among low-income renters who qualify for HUD housing subsidies (42 percent). In fact, White residents remain the largest racial category in the public housing developments whose ownership and management were privatized to avoid desegregation. Put another way, Congress’ actions in 1961 to avoid the coming desegregation at least partially worked.

White subsidized housing residents have fewer unsafe and unsanitary conditions compared to their Indigenous, Black and Latinx counterparts. Yet, these White residents pay approximately 100 dollars (or, about 5 percent of their income) less a month than their Asian, Black, and Latinx counterparts. Additionally, White subsidized renters live in less segregated neighborhoods.

In short, all key measures of racial integration and equity demonstrate the publicly subsidized housing programs are still providing higher quality units at lower cost to White renters compared to their counterparts of color.

Moreover, the racial inequality in subsidized housing is larger—on every measure—than the racial inequality among low-income renters who would qualify for HUD housing but are renting market rate units. Thus, it is not merely personal preference or market conditions creating the observed inequality.

The inequalities and racial segregation across public housing programs (e.g., publicly owned housing, privately owned, publicly funded development, housing vouchers, and other subsidies) is a key factor enabling the racial inequality to continue. Specifically, housing vouchers, which are disproportionately given to Black and Latinx renters, are notably more expensive, unsafe, and segregated than the other housing programs. Additionally, segregation across age and the unequal maintenance of developments also contribute to the inequities.

Building Decent and Safe Housing for All

Building off the legacy of activists in the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s, we need to hold the government accountable to fulfill its own mandate for racially equitable public housing. As the last five decades have taught us, this cannot be accomplished through defunding, demonizing, and privatizing government housing programs. Instead, we need to reinvest and reimagine public housing policies that are built for all.

Given the specific findings of our study, we suggest three immediate interventions: (1) integrating developments across age and family composition; (2) investing in upgrades for Indigenous housing developments; and (3) reallocating resources from tenant vouchers into high quality, well-managed public housing developments.

Yet, we also argue for broader transformations in all governmental housing subsidies (e.g., federal mortgage insurance, secondary housing market, etc.) that recognize the harms that have been caused and build systems that uplift and empower families to live happy and full lives.

Bios:

Junia Howell is a sociologist affiliated with University of Illinois Chicago and the director of the nonprofit, eruka.

Ellen Whitehead is an Assistant Professor at Ball State University. Follow her on X @EllenMWhitehead.

Elizabeth Korver-Glenn is an Assistant Professor at Washington University in St. Louis. Follow her on X @elizabethkaygee or on Instagram @ekg_writes.

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Adverse childhood experiences are a pervasive issue that affect millions of individuals worldwide. For lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and/or queer (LGBTQ+) individuals, the experience of identity-related childhood adversity can be particularly devastating, leading to a range of mental health challenges in adulthood. Our study sheds light on the impact of childhood identity-related abuse on mental health outcomes among 563 LGBTQ+ individuals in Spain. Some examples of LGBTQ+ identity-related abuse by a parent or caregiver include being pressured to act masculine or feminine against their will, or being slapped, hit or physically injured because of one’s LGBTQ+  identity. In our study, we found that nearly 62% of participants indicated exposure to LGBTQ+ identity-related abuse during childhood, and nearly all participants had at least one prejudicial or discriminatory experience in the past year. The study also found that nearly 20% of participants were likely to experience depressive symptoms, and around 46% had suicidal behavior. Furthermore, LGBTQ+ identity-related abuse was linked to experiences of LGBTQ+ identity-related discrimination and harassment, and mental health problems during adulthood. Our study highlights the need for supportive policies that address the unique challenges faced by LGBTQ+ individuals, particularly those who have experienced identity-related abuse during childhood.

Our study findings are cast in sharp relief when we consider global backlash to progressive LGBTQ+ policies, and the current political landscape in the U.S. attacking parents and caregivers supportive of trans kids. In some U.S. states, parents supporting gender affirming practices and care—ranging from adopting and using a child’s preferred pronouns or name to medical interventions such as puberty blockers—are embroiled in ongoing legal battles and are being investigated under new law that misrepresents gender affirmation of trans kids by parents and guardians as “child abuse”. Other ongoing legal changes, under the umbrella of “parental rights,” include requiring schools to report youth who self-identify as LGBTQ+ to their parents, and “don’t say gay” bills preventing teachers from discussing, and thus affirming, LGBTQ+ experiences and identities within school environments. Our research suggests that these policies, which claim to be motivated to “protect children,” are likely to lead to adverse childhood experiences that have lifelong impacts on the mental wellbeing of LGBTQ+ young people as they transition into adulthood. These policies prioritize the parental rights of non-affirming parents while actively restricting the parental rights of LGBTQ+-affirming parents. Our research highlights the negative impact of identity rejection by parents and caregivers, but other research suggests that supportive school environments and caring teachers are protective for the mental health of LGBTQ+ youth. Outing kids and restricting support in schools puts LGBTQ+ young people across the U.S. and globally at considerable risk that runs directly counter to the welfare of youth. In a world where parental, teacher, and other adult support of LGBTQ+ youth is being attacked as “grooming” or “abuse”, are we recognizing the very real harm LGBTQ+ young people experience when their identities are rejected by parents and caregivers?

Jennifer Tabler, Ph.D., is an Associate Professor of Sociology at the University of Wyoming. Her research and teaching interests include the sociology of health, health disparities, gender and sexuality, and rural experiences. Her current work examines LGBTQ+ erasure in the rural West (U.S.), and seeks to center the lived experiences of multiple marginalized LGBTQ+ people in rural regions. Twitter: @jenni_tabler Bluesky: @jennismovingcastle.bsky.social

Ruby Charak, Ph.D., is an Associate Professor in the Department of Psychological Science and Director of the Adversities in Childhood and Trauma Studies Lab (ACT Lab; http://www.utrgv.edu/actlab/) at the University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, Edinburg since 2016. Her research interests pertain to childhood adversities, including, child abuse and neglect, family violence, sexual victimization in adolescents and young adults, and posttraumatic stress disorders.

Rachel M. Schmitz, Ph.D., is an Associate Professor of Sociology at Oklahoma State University. Her research and teaching interests include gender and sexuality, the family, LGBTQ+ youth and young adults, human-animal interactions, and qualitative methods. Her current work emphasizes the voices and lived experiences of multiple marginalized LGBTQ+ people in rural regions and their understandings of health.